Pop Culture’s Influence on Dating Essay

What’s the best part about dating? The rush of getting to know a new person? The hope that it will lead to something more lasting? For some people it’s the dream to find their true love and have them sweep them off their feet. For others it’s finding a person who doesn’t mind a more casual relationship. Most of the time, they return home only to think about what might have happened if their life went as well as the scripted ones they watch all of the time. They wish that they had a team of writers planning the next move in their romantic lives, and had award winning actors take on their role in life. These people have become victims of the modern age in dating. Be it movies, television, or books, pop culture has helped men and women set unrealistic expectations for dating and romance. We all know that the silver screen puts the rose-colored glasses over romance, but it is how they portray dating in many different genres that is really skewed. Horror movies are expected to end badly, and it is no exception for dating in this movie style. Typically the young couple are terrorized on a date by some knife-wielding maniac out for revenge. That can lead to many assumptions, depending on how the movie ended. If the couple was killed during the course of the film, then it can be concluded that the good die young. But if they both survive (and there isn’t a sequel haunting them) then people may start to believe that true love is formed by going through a traumatic experience with someone. Often times in Horror films, the couple goes out to get some privacy, only to find themselves the killer’s first victims. Not many people get the wrong idea about dating from Horror movies, granted, but what about the plucky love interest for everyone’s favorite Superheros? Mary Jane Watson, Gwen Stacy, Pepper Potts, Peggy Carter, Lois Lane, and Jane Foster to name a few. These women have made a name for themselves by being charmed by Superheros. Their men (Spiderman, Iron Man, Captain America, Superman, and Thor, respectively) are either super strong, super smart, an alien, or any combination of the three. If that d oesn’t give people the wrong idea about romance, then the writers aren’t doing their job. The strong, but constantly endangered, women are intelligent and attractive, leading the â€Å"hero† in the audience to long for the power to fly in and save them from any and all perilous situations. With people wanting a hero, and heroes waiting for their fem fatal, no one is going to make it out of this dating game alive. Superpowers aside, perhaps the most disillusioning movie genre is the Romantic Comedy. Quirky but lovable characters are thrust together in strange situations and they always come out of it with the love of their life. This genre has capitalized on the nice-guy finally getting the girl, the best friends realizing that they were made for each other, and fairy tale endings that warm the audience’s hearts. Men and women alike are fans of the Romantic Comedy, in part because they’re designed that way; the actresses are all attractive or funny, the actors are both, and the script is written for both men and women. Whether or not they admit to it, everyone enjoys a good â€Å"rom-com† after a long day of disappointment, and why not? The protagonist always comes out on top, and there’s always that one great date following all of the duds. For as long as they’ve been around, movies have helped the public set impossible goals for dating, but then television came along and sped up the process. From play dates to wedding dates, television has given a â€Å"Step-by-Step† guide to dating, particularly in shows such as Boy Meets World, Friends, and How I Met Your Mother. In Boy Meets World the viewers watched as Cory Matthews grew up, fell in love, and lived his life. Cory’s â€Å"love-of-his-life† was Tapanga Lawrence, a girl that he started calling his wife in Pre-School. Their relationship went through rough patches, but someone always knew that it was meant to be. The idea that one can meet (and keep) their first love from their childhood days is almost as improbable as thinking that Superheros can swoop in and save the day. Against all odds Cory and Tapanga actually survive dating through High School, and marriage in College. Young children are taught through weekly episodes that true love can be found on the playground, and that while it is imperfect, it is eternal. Boy Meets World was a family oriented show, but what about the shows that were geared more towards the working adult? Friends was a television sitcom that followed the lives of six friends. Viewers watched as their favorite friend fell in and out of love. Rachel and Ross had an on-again, off-again relationship that confused everyone, including the actors. Their relationship was based on attraction but the way they treated each other was, at times, cruel. This couple was volatile at best, and a running joke for viewers; â€Å"Are Ross and Rachel together this week?† Another couple in the show occurred later on in the series, and provides a foil to Ross and Rachel. Chandler and Monica’s relationship was built on friendship and as such was more stable. They were the fun couple who’s lines were joking and who always put the other first. The show was casual with its approach to dating, with non-regular characters coming and going throughout the series. Other shows were not as simple. Soap Operas fall in line with the over-dramatization of romance and dating, and there are many shows that focus on finding love. How I Met Your Mother is literally the drawn out retelling of how Ted Mosby found the mother of his children. These shows, while entertaining and sometimes informative, tell men and women that their true love can be found in everyday places such as work, at a coffee shop, or even on the playground. Television is guilty of helping with today’s dating misconceptions, however the biggest offender is literature by far. â€Å"Bodice Rippers† may not be the only things leading to unrealistic ideas about love; everything from Shakespeare to the Teen Romance section in today’s book stores share some of the blame. Romeo and Juliet is perhaps the most well-known romance story of all time. The main characters are teenagers who pledge their love to each other, despite being from warring families. They kill themselves for love that they think is forever but, historically had they lived and been allowed to marry, one of the lovers would have had an affair or died of natural causes early on in their marriage. Poetry of that time was romantic and well written as well. It really is a pit y that most of those poems were written about love affairs with already married people. They spoke of undeniable attraction, and how they really shouldn’t be denying themselves the love of the other person. Romance novels from later centuries tell readers about an odd sensation of love-at-first-sight. â€Å"Our eyes met, and I knew right then and there that we were meant to be together forever.† This idea is the drug of romance novels, it is what gets readers hooked and coming back for more. People have spent countless hours pouring over books with lines like that acting as major plot devices. Most readers swoon over the muscled heroes, dreaming of being in the heroine’s place. Teen Romance novels take this idea and make it even more impossible. They write in supernatural beings for the awkward teenager to fall in love with. Even if they take away the fantasy element, at heart the stories are improbable. For the most part, teenagers in High School don’t know what romantic love is (or if they do, it is never forever). Teen Romance novels teach teenagers that the love of their life is waiting for them in their Biology class, is the partner on a History assignment, or is the loner who they see in the library everyday. Teenagers who read these books get the idea that they can find a true love in the hormone-ridden home of disappointment that is High School. Escaping the real world by reading isn’t bad, but letting the fiction influence the thought process never ended well for anyone. Pop culture isn’t inherently evil, but when it comes to dating and romance, it is probably best to stop drawing parallels with real life. Movies, books, and literature are supposed to be used as ways to escape reality, not as guidelines for how to live. It would be a little ridiculous to put disclaimers before movies, shows, and books reading â€Å"Warning: Relationships portrayed in this are fictional, and not based on real life† but it’s starting to feel necessary. Not every story has a happy ending, and even those who do aren’t forever. If the public could just learn to stop accepting pop culture as gospel, stop looking for their soul mate where they â€Å"never would have expected†, then the dating world would be a better place. A place where true love doesn’t mean a love against all odds, but a love that is real. Real love is when a couple can get into arguments, be mad at each other and that isn’t the end of the relationship; when it isn’t all rainbows and roses but they’re happy with each other. No one wants to watch a movie about that, but then again, no one wants to watch a baby being born and they film â€Å"the miracle of life† every day. Maybe if more movies, TV shows, and books were realistic, more people would enjoy dating.

Chocolate by Joanne Harris Essay

If we were all to rebel against what we’ve always known to be accepted, if we were to completely ignore the teachings of our elders and do the things we’ve been taught to be â€Å"evil† and â€Å"sinister†, what would happen? This situation is one which occurs in a small and tranquil French town in the extract from Chocolat. Throughout the extract there are a variety of juxtapositions, polarizations, and much contrast building the subject. Joanne Harris creates a compelling story, but not without exaggerated or overstated situations. Through reading the extract and analyzing each significant line of literature, we are able to understand the narrator and the young girl’s character to a more advanced degree. In the extract, we first encounter Vianne with her daughter Anouk as they brave the harsh wind and settle into the new village. â€Å"We came on the wind of the carnival.† The quoted piece of literature displays the sly exotic wind, a rather unusual one for February. To some extent, the wind presents the characters of Vianne and Anouk as they are independent and wild, the same as the wind that brought in the carnival. Reminiscent of the carnival, the narrator and her daughter are very bright and lively which is ironic as they settled the grey village during the time of the carnival. This piece of text also shows polarization; Light vs. Dark and Lively vs. Dull, as well as contrast between the town’s people and the carnival. The polarization of Lively vs. Dull can be seen in the extract thro ugh the mentioning of fanciful tales. â€Å"†¦A dragon’s head on a shield, Rapunzel in a woolen wig, a mermaid with a Cellophane tail, a gingerbread house all icing and gilded cardboard, a witch in the doorway†¦.† Seeing that most of us have matured with the impression that fairy tales are magic- blissful, bright and fantastic, as we read this passage we can see how Vianne try’s to keep magic alive in Anouk as well as in herself. Their itinerant from town to town represents this burning flame; the magic she is striving to keep alive. Not only does Vianne attempt to keep magic flourishing in herself and Anouk, she also aids the parishioners. The extract is an enchanting brew of confections and humanity. Vianne, a shaman-like woman rides the North wind casting her spell of kindness to  those in need; she visits town after town seeking battles with those who would take advantage, and attempt to lord over other poor souls. Carrying on a tradition of lifting the spirits of the downtrodden, with her magical unrefined cocoa and special chili pepper in the form of delicious chocolates. This shows great contrast amongst Vianne and the villagers for the reason that, the personality of Vianne is much different than that of each person in Lansquenet. We also notice this contrast out of the text through â€Å"†¦ Her silk scarf fluttering at her throat; the child in yellow Wellingtons and sky blue mac. Their coloring marks them. Their clothes are exotic..† Unlike the town’s people, Vianne is more insightful and exotic as well as observant but nevertheless logical. This is shown in â€Å"..knowledge is currency here..† and â€Å"I feel their gaze†¦Ã¢â‚¬  As for Anouk, she is able to see beyond the truth. At first, we witness this during the carnival. â€Å"But at six the world retains a special luster.† Then, at the mentioning of a mermaid. â€Å"..a mermaid with a Cellophane tail..† She can still see the real witch, the real magic. Joanne Harris used a great juxtaposition here; magic vs. functionality. Not only does Joanne Harris use juxtapositions to build her subjects, she also employs contrast, polarization, connotations, sensuality/austerity (priest, villagers) plus flamboyant pass ages along with descriptive ones used to paint an image in the reader’s mind that appeals to our senses. For example, to appeal to our tastes Joanne Harris uses very descriptive words that are enough to make you drool. â€Å"..hot greasy scents of frying pancakes and sausages and powdery-sweet waffles..† This also creates wild images in the readers mind, tying in contrast amongst the carnival and town’s people. The fact that Vianne arrives in town on the day of the carnival just prior to lent shows great significance- Contrast to people and village is Lively vs. Grey/Dull, which ironically is seen a lot throughout the passage. The carnival also acts as a connecting thread though means of a new beginning. More precisely, a new beginning between Vianne and the villagers; almost like a â€Å"float.† In addition, the carnival sets mood and personality; the fact that everything is not always as is seen, especially when it comes to Religion where the church is a means of control. This control is used as a juxtaposition, repression, and emphasis throughout the movie as well as the passage. All the factors mentioned in the essay; character, language, connections, significance, tie in to create the  subject. The subject of how the town’s people judge Vianne and Anouk which then leads to tolerance- how the author creates the subject.

Library Management System Essay

Name of the Project Vision Online Library Online Library is a system, which maintains books in the server in any format. It allows storing books, documents, audio and video files. User can Search and open documents by giving a simple query. Online Library Management System is a system, which maintains books, documents, audio/video files. To use this system user must be a member in this. Then user allowed storing books, documents, A/V files. Then user can search by giving a simple query. It is very difficult search books manually. Online Library makes easy. Deliverables / Functional Specifications Online Library uses user internal feedback from user to improve search process in every searching. It also uses indexing to locate documents very fast in searching which relate to query. Main aim of online Library system is providing highly relevant documents in very short period after giving query. It is just like Search Engine. It uses Vector space Model and Probabilistic Model to find similarity coefficient, weights. User Interface Requirements Database Centralized ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 2 Browser based DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Requirements Integration Requirements Preferred Technologies J2EE Technologies i.e. JSP, Servlets, jdbc Frontend: – Html, JavaScript, Java Server pages. Backend: – Oracle 10g. Hardware Requirement Pentium 4 processor with 256 MB RAM, 40 GB Hard disk Web based Interface ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 3 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 INTRODUCTION ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 4 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 INTRODUTION Online Library Management System is a system, which maintains books, documents, audio/video files. To use this system user must be a member in this. Then user allowed storing books, documents, A/V files. Then user can search by giving a simple query. It is very difficult search books manually. Online Library makes easy. Online Library uses user internal feedback from  user to improve search process in every searching. It also uses indexing to locate documents very fast in searching which relate to query. Main aim of online Library system is providing highly relevant documents in very short period after giving query. It is just like Search Engine. It uses Vector space Model and Probabilistic Model to find similarity coefficient, weights. Existing System Early days Libraries are managed manually. It required lot of time to record or to retrieve the details. The employees who have to record the details must perform their job very carefully. Even a small mistake would create many problems. Security of information is very less. Report generations of all the information is very tough task. Maintenance of Library catalogue and arrangement of the books to the catalogue is very complex task. In addition to its maintenance of member details, issue dates and return dates etc. manually is a complex task. All the operations must be performed in perfect manner for the maintenance of the library without any degradation, which may finally result in the failure of the entire system. Benefits of automation Automation is procedure of converting a traditional system in to a computer organization. To overcome the defects of the existing system automation was introduced by the computerization of organization we get many benefits. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 5 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 The main objectives of undertaking this project are: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · The students will register them through Online Individually each member will have his account through which he can access the information he needs. Books, documents, A/V files are stored in server. User will enter simple  query in text box and click on the Search button. Server takes the request and processes it. Returns hyper links of documents with their names, ranks weights and description. If the user clicks on name of the document then it will open with respective program and rank of document will increase for that query.(for example .pdf files with Adobe Reader) User can upload documents, books and a/v files. Time consuming is low, gives accurate results, reliability can be improved with the help of security. Proposed System: To solve the inconveniences as mentioned above, an Online Library proposed. PROCESS LOGIC: 1. The user inputs data (e.g.: fills out an HTML form and clicks the submit button.) 2. The client (Browser) sends the data to the web server in a standard format (i.e., the GET method or the POST method). 3. The web server launches the program specified by the user and feeds it the input (form) data. 4. The program (e.g.: servlet) processes the form data and produces another HTML page. 5. The web server sends back the HTML page to the browser. The web browser then displays the response page. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 6 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 ANALYSIS Analysis is the process of understanding the existing system by gathering and interpreting the facts, diagnosing the problems. It is not just to determining the how best to solve the manual system problems, it should also work for the system observes the feasibility of system then design, coding phases will be executed. Analysis phase delivers requirements specification .The system specification serves as an interface between the designer and  developer as well as between developers and users. This describes the external behavior of the software without bothering about the internal implementation. Specification must be carefully checked for suitability, omission, inconsistencies and ambiguities. Problem analysis is performed to getting a clear understanding of the needs of the clients and the users and what exactly desired form the software. Analysis leads to the actual specification. During the process of analysis, a massive amount of information is collected in the form of interviews, questionnaires, and information from documentation, and so forth. The major problem during analysis is resolving how to organize the information from documentation, and so forth. So the information can be effectively evaluated for completeness and consistency. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 7 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION FUNCTIONAL MODEL / USE CASE MODEL IDENTIFYING ACTOR: 1. Administrator: He should register new Users, Delete Users etc. He can upload new documents, Documents, and A/V files. 2. User: He should register in site in order to access books. He can search for books. He can upload new books, documents, and A/V files into server. IDENTIFYING SCENARIOS: A Scenario is a scene, which explains a particular situation in more visualized model. A scenario consists of actors, scenes, and flow of events. In our project, we have the following scenarios: Scenario for Searching of EBooks, Document or A/V file: Scene Name Actors Flow of events Searching for books. User/Administrator User Opens home page of site. It will display text box and Search button. User simply enter query into text box, clicks on Search button. Browser sends request to the server. Server search documents for query and sends hyperlinks to documents (with weight, ranks, and a small description about document) in order of relevance to the query. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 8 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Scenario a for Opening EBook, Document or A/V file: Scene Name Actors Flow of events Opening Book, Document, or A/V file. User / Administrator User clicks on hyperlink of Document by reading description about document that had displayed below hyperlink. Then browser sends a request to the server again. The request contains name of document which user wants to open. The server will increase rank for document with respect to query into order to increase the relevance. Then server sends the document file in the form of response to browser. Now browser will open the document by using related application program on client system. (For example if server sent .mp3 file then browser opens it by using audio player, which installed on client‟s computer. Of course, Browser needs permeation of System Administrator to access application program.) ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 9 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Scenario for Uploading a EBook, Document or A/V file into Server: Scene Name Actors Flow of events Uploading Administrator / User First User clicks on hyperlink of â€Å"Upload document†. Then browser sends request to upload file. Server return a webpage to browser it contains text box and browse button. By clicking on browse button a file window is displayed which allows to user to select a document from clients computer. After selecting document users click on upload button. Server checks for its extension. If document is.exe file server will not allow uploading file for the purpose of security. Then server insert name of document into documents table with unique document id. Then server creates index for document and insert into indexes table. Server returns a webpage, which contains confirmation and document id. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 10 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Scenario for Modifying Users: Scene Name Actors Flow of events Modifying Users Administrator If login user is admin then homepage contains a special Hyperlink that â€Å"modify user.† If admin clicks on that hyperlink he will navigate to another webpage which contains details of users. In that admin can modify user details admin can delete users who violated terms of site. IDENTIFYING USE CASES: A use case is a description of systems behaviour from a user‟s standpoint. It is a tried and true technique for gathering systems requirement from a user‟s point of view. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 11 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 USE CASE DIAGRAMS Use case diagram for entire Online Library System: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 12 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Use Case Diagram for Searching: Use case Diagram for Uploading file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 13 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 SEQUENCE DIAGRAMS Sequence Diagram for Searching: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 14 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Sequence Diagram for uploading file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 15 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Sequence Diagram for Opening file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 16 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 COLLABORATION DIAGRAMS Collaboration Diagram for Searching: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 17 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Collaboration Diagram for uploading file: Collaboration Diagram for Opening file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 18 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 ACTIVITY DIAGRAMS Activity Diagram for Searching: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 19 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Activity Diagram for Uploading file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 20 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Activity Diagram for Opening file: ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 21 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 CLASS DIAGRAMS DBHandler Class: DBHandler is respnosible for performing all operations which are need interaction with Database. It perform all operation in database like inserting document, creating index, inserting query, mating database consistency , creating tables, recovering database when database crashed. It highly simplifies maintains of database. Adminstrator need not worry about database at any time. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 22 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 VectroSpaceModel Class: VectorSpaceModel is class it responsible for calculating similarity coefficients of documents with respect to query. After calculating similarity coefficient it passes documents with similarity coefficients to probabilistic model class, which will finds weights using similarity coefficients. ProbabilisticModel Class: Probabilisticmodel class responsible for calculating weights for documents using similarity coefficients. After calculating weights, it will get ranks for documents from rank table. And return documents to Search class. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 23 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Read Class: Read class for responsible for reading text from text files. It will read text from different format of text files. For example .doc, .pdf, .xls, .txt, .html etc. It read reads text and clean text and returns as string. If the file is not text file then it will return name and extension of file as string. Search Class: Search Class acts as driver class. It does not perform any tasks. It makes all class working together. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 24 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 DEPLOYMENT DIAGRAM ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 25 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 DESIGN SOFTWARE STRUCTURE: Software is fundamental characteristic of computer software. Software structure is to decompose the complex groups of module into sub modules i.e., Process, Menus, Inputs and Reports. The most general form of the software structure is the network. The structure is the network. The structure inside a complex processing node might consist of concurrent processes executing in parallel and communication through some combination of shared variables. DATABASE DESIGN: Planning the Database: The most important consideration in designing the database is how the information will be used. ïÆ'Ëœ Business activities that will use the database to perform. ïÆ'Ëœ Business rules that apply to these activities ïÆ'Ëœ Data wanted to maintain in the database The main objectives of designing a database are ïÆ'Ëœ ïÆ'Ëœ ïÆ'Ëœ Data integration Data integrity Data independence DATA INTEGRATION: In a database, information from several files is co-ordinate, accessed and operand upon as though it is single file. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 26 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 Logically, the information is centralized, physical, the data may be located facilities. Design Methodology: Design is concerned with identifying software components, specifying relationships among component, specifying software structure and providing a blue print for the implementation phase. Design consists of three types: 1. Architectural Design 2. Detail Design 3. External Design Architectural Design: Architectural Design involves identifying the software components, decoupling and decomposing them into processing modules and conceptual data structure and specifying relationships among the components. Detailed Design: Detailed design is concerned with the details of how to package the processing modules and how to implement the processing algorithms, data structure and interconnection among modules and data structure. GUI based design: In order to have a better understanding over the system design, it is appropriate to know the actual designing in terms of the development platform and the way in which the GUI are designed to satisfy the requirements of the user. The analysis of the design aspects of this package is proposed External design. External design of software involves conceiving, planning and specifying the external observable characteristics in different devices connected though data communication ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 27 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 of a software product. This includes reports and display formats. External design begins analysis phase it continues into the design phase. DATA INTEGRITY: Data integrity means storing all the data in single place and allow each application to access it. This approach results in more consistent, on update being sufficient to achieve a new record status for all the applications, which use it. This leads to less data redundancy, data items need not be duplicated, requirement. DATA INDEPENDENCE: Data independence is the insulation of application programs from changing aspects of physical data organization. This objective seeks to allow changes in the content and organization of physical data without reprogramming of applications and to allow modifications to application programs without the reorganizing the physical data. Normalization: Data structuring is refined through a process called normalization. Normalization is a formal process of developing data structures in a manner that eliminates decomposition redundancy and promotes integrity. of complex records into simple It is a step-by-step records to reduce a reduction in the direct access storage  redundancy, inconsistencies and remove anomalies. There are several normal forms to be followed in normalization process. The most important and widely used are: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 28 First Normal Form Second Normal Form Third Normal Form DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 First Normal Form: A table is said to be in first normal form if the intersection of any column and row contains only value. Method: This is identifying a suitable identifier from the pool of normalized data. Remove any item that repeat within a single value of this key to another relation bringing with them the identifier key to form part of new composite key in the relation. Second Normal Form: For a table to be in the second normal form it should also be in the first normal form and the values in every column are functionally dependent on the complete primary key. Method: Examine every column and section whether its value depend on the whole of  the compound key or just some parts of it. Remove key. Third Normal Form: For a table to be in the third normal form transitively dependent on the primary key. Method: Examine every non-key column with every other non-key column. If the value of the non-key column depends on the other non-key column then remove the columns to separate table. it should be in the those that depend only on part of the key to a new table with that part as the primary second normal form and the values in every non-key column are not ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 29 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 De Normalization: The normalization process helps in reducing to a great extent but sometimes when information is required from more than one table, at a fast rate , it is desirable to have some degree of redundancy in table . Their deliberate introduction of redundancy for a highly improved performance is referred to as † De Normalization† . DATABASE TABLES: 1. QUARRIES: The QUARRES table can store quarries entered by user with unique ID (QID). It is stores unique quarries irrespective order of words and case of letters. 2. DOCUMENTS: The DOCUMENTS table can hold name of documents, which are in server with unique ID for every document. 3. WORDS: The WORDS table can store words, which are in documents. This table plays key role in creating index for documents. This table contains a unique ID and words column. Unique words can be stored in this table irrespective of case of letters. 4. RANKS: The RANKS table can hold rank and weight for each document with respect to query. This table contains four columns. QID and DID are refer QID of QUERRIES and DID of DOCUMENTS table respectively. 5.  INDEX: The INDEX table helps to search engine while searching for documents, which are relate to query given by user. Simply it makes fast Searching. It contains two columns WID, DID refer WID of WORDS, DID of DOCUMENTS tables. 6. USERDETAILS: The USERDETAILS can hold details of users. Username, user-id, password etc. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 30 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 31 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 ABOUT THE SOFTWARE INTRODUCTION: HTML stands for hyper text makeup language. It is a language used to create hypertext documents that have hyperlinks embedded in them. You can build web pages. It is only a formatting language and not a programming language. Hyperlinks are underlined or emphasized words or locations in a screen that leads to other documents, W W W is a global, Interactive, dynamic, cross Platform, graphical hypertext information system. The idea behind hypertext is that instead of reading text in rigid linear structure you can easily jump from one point to another. You can Navigate through the information based on your interest and preferences. HYPERMEDIA HTML pages with audio and video files linked to them are called Hypermedia. HTML is platform independent. HTML IS PLATFORM INDEPENDENT: If you can access internet, you can access WWW, Irrespective of your operating system and the operating system to the web server. All you require to view and unload the HTML files, which are on the WWW, are a browser and internet connection. WEB IS DISTRIBUTED: The information on the WWW is distributed through out the world. You can access it with a few mouse clicks. You do not have to store it on your machine. Information on the Web is dynamically updateable. As the information is at the site where it is published, the people who publish it can change it any time. HTML is a language for describing structured documents, HTML describes the structures of documents – lists, headings, paragraphs Etc. Elements of web documents are labeled through the usage of HTML tags, It is the tags that describe the documents. Anything that is not a tag part of the Document itself. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 32 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 The Static Web When the World Wide Web was born, it consisted of static Web sites. Web sites consisted of static documents (mostly HTML pages) that were accessible through Web servers. Users used Web browsers to access these Web sites. A Web browser communicated with a Web server over the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Using an HTTP request, the browser communicated with the Web server and asked to get access to a certain document. The Web server managed a set of documents stored on a file system. When asked for a document, it would retrieve it and return it within an HTTP response: HTML DOES NOT DESCRIBE PAGE LAYOUT: World for windows or lotus improve for example, have different styles for Headings, font, Size, and identification. HTML does not have all these. Based on the plat form , exact placement or appearance of any element will change. There may be or may not be fonts installed. By separating the structure of the document and its appearance, a program, that reads and understands HTML can make formatting decisions based on capabilities of the individual platform . In addition to providing the networking functions to retrieve documents, Web browsers are also HTML formatters. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 33 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 They parse and format documents and display them on the screen. Different rowsers show data differently. ADVANTAGES : A HTML document is small and hence easy to send over the net. It is small because it does not include format information. HTML documents are cross platform compatible and device independent. You only need a HTML reliable browser to view them. Font names, locations Etc.. are required. Currently the standard fully supported is HTML 2.0 & HTML 3.0 is in use. It supports. Centered and right aligned text. Tables . Math equations Text and image alignment JAVA INTRODUCTION Java is an intercepted language. Though it bears a close resemblance to C++ , it is different from it in many ways. It is a smaller,  portable, purely object oriented Language that eliminates many of the sources of bugs and complexities that are common with C Or C++ . JAVA FEATURES: Java is simple, Object Oriented, Intercepted, Robust, Secure Architecture neutral, Portable, has high performance, multi threaded and dynamics. It is easier To use Java because it’s syntax is similar to C and C++, more so when it eliminates components of C that causes bugs and memory leaks and hence a lot less debugging, Java provides a powerful Set of pre-tested libraries that give us the ability to use advanced features even with few lines of Code. OBJECT ORIENTED Java is an Object oriented programming Language that uses software objects called CLASESS and it is based on reusable, extensible code. This implies we can use Java’s classes, which are sets of variables and method s, as ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 34 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 templates to create other Classes with added functionality without the need to write the code from Scratch. The Application can be made small and easy to develop if we plan the class hierarchy well. Robust: Java is Robust because, the language removes the use of pointers and The Java Runtime System manages the memory for us. Java gives us automatic bounds checking for arrays, so that they cannot reside in an address space which is not allocated for them. Automatic memory management is taken care of by the Garbage Collector. Interpreted: Java is interpreted; hence the development cycle is much faster. Java needs to compile for a single, virtual machine and then the code can run on any machine that has JVM ported to it. Secure: Java is secure, so user can download Java programs from anywhere. Java provides extensible compile time checking followed by a multi layered level of runtime Checking. Architecture Neutral: Java is architecture neutral, so user applications are portable across multiple platforms. Java’s Applications are written and compiled into Byte Code for JVM, Which emulates an actual hardware chip. The Java Interpreter installed at the client, so applications need not be written for various platforms separately converts byte Code to machine code. Java further ensures that the applications are the same on every platform by strictly defining the sizes of the basic data types and their behaviour. Dynamic: Java is Dynamic., so the applications are adapted to changing environments, Java’s architecture allows the user to dynamically load classes at runtime from any where on the network, which means that the user can add functionality to applications by simply linking in new classes. ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 35 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 JDBC OVERVIEW What is JDBC? JDBC is a Java TM API for executing SQL statements. It consists of a set of classes and interfaces written in the JAVA programming language that makes it easy to send SQL statements to virtually any relational database. In other words, with the JDBC API, it isn’t necessary to write one program to access a Sybase database, another program to access an Oracle database, another program to access an Informix database, and so on. One can write a single program using the JDBC API, and the program will be able to send SQL statements to the appropriate database. And, with a program written in the JAVA programming language, one doesn’t have to worry about writing different programs to run on different platforms. The combination of JAVA and JDBC lets a programmer write it once and run it anywhere. JAVA, being robust, secures, easy to use, easy to understand, and automatically downloadable on a network, is an excellent language basis for database applications. What i s needed is a way for JAVA applications to talk to  variety of different databases. JDBC is the mechanism for doing this. JDBC extends what you can do in JAVA. For example, with JAVA and the JDBC API, it is possible to publish a web page containing an applet that uses information obtained from a remote database. Or an enterprise can use JDBC to connect all its employees (Even if they are using a conglomeration of Windows, Macintosh and Unix machines) to one or more internal databases via. An Internet. With more and more programmers using the JAVA programming language, the need for easy database access from JAVA is continuing to grow. MIS managers like the combination of JAVA and JDBC because it makes disseminating information easy and economical. Business can continue to use their installed databases and access information easily even if it is stored on different database management systems. Development time for new applications is short. Installation and version controls are greatly simplified. A programmer can write an application or an update once, put it on the server and everybody has access to the latest version and for business selli ng information services, JAVA and JDBC offers better way of getting out information updates to ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 36 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 external customers. Various ways to use JDBC are discussed in. What Does JDBC Do? Simply put, JDBC makes it possible to do three things: Establishes connection to databases. Send SQL statements. Process the results. JDBC is a Low-level API and a base for Higher-Level API. JDBC is a â€Å"Low-level† interface, which means that it is used to invoke SQL commands directly. It works very well in this capacity and is easier to use than other database connectivity APIs, but it was designed also to be a base upon which to build higher-level interfaces and tools. A higher-level interface is â€Å"User-friendly†, using a more understandable or more convenient API that is  translated behind the scenes into a Low level interface such as JDBC. So why not just use ODBC from Java? The answer is that you can use ODBC from JA V A, but this is best done with the help of JDBC in the form of the JDBC-ODBC Bridge. The question now becomes â€Å"Why do you need JDBCT’ There are several answers to this question: 1. ODBC is not appropriate for direct use from Java because is uses a C interface. 2. Calls from Java to native C code have a number of drawbacks in the security, 1. implementation, robustness, and automatic probability of applications. A literal translation of the ODBC API into a Java API world not desirable. For example, Java has no pointers, and ODBC makes copious use from, including the notoriously error-prone generic pointer â€Å"void *†. You can think as JDBC as ODBC translated into an object-oriented interface that is natural for Java programmers. 2. ODBC is hard to learn. It mixes simple and advanced features together, and it has complex options even for simple queries. JDBC, on the other ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 37 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 hand, was designed for a wide range of programmers and keeps simple things simple. 3. A Java API like JDBC is needed in order to enable an â€Å"all-Java† solution. When ODBC is used, the driver manager and drivers must be manually installed on every client machine. When the JDBC driver is written completely in JAVA, however, JDBC code is automatically installed, portable, and secure on all Java platforms from network computers to mainframes. In summary, the JDBC API is natural JAVA interface is to the basic SQL abstractions and concepts. It builds an odbc rather than starting from search, so programmers familiar with odbc will find it very easy to learn JDBC. JDBC retains the basic design features of ODBC; infarct, both interfaces are based on the x/Open SQL CU( call level interface). The big difference is that JDBC builds on and reinforces the style and virtues of  Java, and of course, it is easy to use. ADVANTAGES. Until now, the middle tier has typically been written in languages such as C or C++, which offer fast performance. However, with introduction of optimizing compilers, translating Java byte code into efficient machinespecific code, it is becoming practical to implement the middle tier in Java. This is a big plus, making it possible to take advantage of Java’s robustness, multi-threading and security features. SOL Conformance Structured Query Language(SQL) is the standard language for accessing relational databases. One area of difficulty is that almost most DBMSs(Database Management Systems) gives a standard form of SQL for basic functionality, they do not conform to the more recently defined standard SQL syntax or semantics for more advanced functionality. For example, not all databases support stored procedures or outer joins, and those that do are not consistent with each other. It is hoped that the portion of SQL that is truly standard will expand to include more functionality. In the mean time, however, the JDBC API must support SQL as it is. One way the JDBC API deals with the problem is to allow any query string to be passed through to an underlying DBMS driver. This means that an application is iTee to use as much SQL functionality is desired, but it runs the risk of receiving an error on some DBMS. In fact an application query need not even be an SQL, or it may be a specialized derivation of SQL designed for specific DBMS(for document or image queries). For example, a second way JDBC deals with the problems of SQL conformance is to provide ODBC style escape clauses. Which are discussed in SQL Escape Syntax in Statement objects. This escape syntax allows a programmer to use SQL ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 38 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 functionality item within a JDBC program. The ODBC API is a natural choice for Java developers because it offers easy database access for Java  applications and applets. Because JDBC brings together Java and databases, the remainder of the topic gives a brief overview of each. JDBC DRIVERS The JDBC drivers that we are aware of at this time fit into one of four categories. 1. JDBC-ODBC bridge plus ODBC Driver: The JavaSoft bridge product provides JDBC access via ODBC drivers. Note that ODBC binary code and in many cases database client code must be loaded on each client machine that uses this driver. As a result, this kind of driver is more appropriate on a corporate network where client installations are not a major problem, or for applications server code written in Java in a three-tier architecture. 2. Native-Api partly – JAVA Driver: This kind of driver converts JDBC calls into calls on the client api for Oracle, sybase, Informix, DB2, or other DBMS. Note that, like the bridge driver this style of driver requires that some binary code be loaded on each client machine. 3. JDBC-Net all– JAVA Driver: This driver translates JDBC calls into a DBMS independent net protocol, which is then translated to a DBMS protocol by a server. This net server middleware is able to connect its all-Java clients to many different databases. The specific protocol used depends on the vendor. In general, this is the most flexible JDBC alternative. It is likely that all vendors of this solution will provide products suitable for internet use. In order for these products to also support internet access, they must handle the additional requirements for security, access through fire walls, etc., that the web imposes. Several vendors are adding JDBC drivers to their existing database middleware products. 4. Native – Protocol all-Java Driver: This kind of driver converts JDBC calls into the network protocol used b: dbms’s directly. This allows a direct call from the client machine to the dbms server and is a practical solution for internet access. Since many of ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 39 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 these protocols are proprietary, the database vendors themselves will be the  primary source. Several database vendors have these in progress. Eventually, we expect that categories 3 and 4 will be the preferred way to access databases from JDBc. Driver categories 1 and 2 are in term solutions where direct all-Java drivers are not yet available. Category 4 is in some sense the ideal; however, there are many cases where category 3 may be preferable: e.g., where a thin dbms in dependent client is desired, or if a dbms-independent protocol is standardized and implemented directly by many dbms vendors. SERVLETS Introduction: The Java web server is JavaSoft’s own web Server. The Java web server is just a part of a larger framework, intended to provide you not just with a web server, but also with tools. To build customized network servers for any Internet or Intranet client/server system. Servlets are to a web server, how applets are to the browser. About Servlets: Servlets provide a Java-based solution used to address the problems currently associated with doing server-side programming, including inextensible scripting solutions, platform-specific APIs, and incomplete interfaces. Servlets are objects that conform to a specific interface that can be plugged into a Java-based server. Servlets are to the server-side what applets are to the client-side – object byte codes that can be dynamically loaded off the net. They differ from applets in that they are faceless objects (without graphics or a GUI component). They serve as platform independent, dynamically loadable, pluggable helper byte code objects on ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 40 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 the server side that can be used to dynamically extend server-side  functionality. For example, an HTTP Servlets can be used to generate dynamic HTML content. When you use Servlets to do dynamic content you get the following advantages: ïÆ'Ëœ They‟re faster and cleaner than CGI scripts ïÆ'Ëœ They use a standard API (the Servlets API) ïÆ'Ëœ They provide all the advantages of Java (run on a variety of servers without needing to be rewritten). Attractiveness of Servlets: There are many features of Servlets that make them easy and attractive to use. These include: ïÆ'Ëœ Easily configured using the GUI-based Admin tool ïÆ'Ëœ Can be loaded and invoked from a local disk or remotely across the network. ïÆ'Ëœ Can be linked together, or chained, so that one Servlets can call another Servlets, or several Servlets in sequence. ïÆ'Ëœ Can be called dynamically from within HTML pages, using server-side include tags. ïÆ'Ëœ Are secure – even when downloading across the network, the Servlets  security model and Servlets sandbox protect your system from unfriendly behavior. Advantages of Servlet API One of the great advantages of the Servlet API is protocol independence. It assumes nothing about: ïÆ'Ëœ The protocol being used to transmit on the net ONLINE LIBRARY BY M.SATHISH KUMAR Page 41 DOCUMENTATION OF ONLINE LIBRARY July 24, 2012 ïÆ'Ëœ How it is loaded ïÆ'Ëœ The server environment it will be running in ïÆ'Ëœ These qualities are important, because it allows the Servlet API to be  embedded in many different kinds of servers. There are other advantages to the Servlet API as well. These include: ïÆ'Ëœ It‟s extensible – you can inherit all your functionality from the base classes made available to you. ïÆ'Ëœ it’s simple, small, and easy to use. Features of Servlets: ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets are persistent. Servlet are loaded only by the web server and can maintain services between requests. ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets are fast. Since Servlets only need to be loaded once, they offer much better performance over their CGI counterparts. ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets are platform independent. ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets are extensible. Java is a robust, object-oriented programming language, which easily can be extended to suit your needs ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets are secure. ïÆ'Ëœ Servlets can be used with a variety of clients. Loading Servlets: Servlets can be loaded from three places From a directory that is on the CLASSPATH. The CLASSPATH of classes reside. From the

Latin American Insurgencies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Latin American Insurgencies - Essay Example The Zapatista was trending vigorously and thus was demanding for reforms as the government had failed to deliver. The EZLN are mostly native poor farmers based union with an intellectual organization leadership from towns and cities, it is deeply entrenched in Mexico and spreads all over the penury affected areas of Chiapas in Mexico. An area highly populated by the Indian communities and eliminated from any entrepreneur development, where high numbers of households lacking water and electricity. The Zapatistas majorly demands for Democracy, freedom and justice from the government, as this three rights have been since deprived resulting into unfair treatment and corruption. The type of democracy Zapatistas visualize should be based in a concordance manner, direct and exercised in a free and fair process. Their aim of freedom is needed to enhance original sovereignty and facilitate self-discovery. Civil and economic justice is vital for the rebellious Zapatistas in order to secure respect for the local culture. According to Schulz & Wager, (1994), the Zapatistas was a succession of the very many bad and serious economic, political and social problems that had dominated, not only in Chiapas but also in remote areas of Mexico. This essay is going to study how the rebellious group influenced the defense forces and their impact on political development of Mexico and among its suburbs. The Zapatistas is less influenced by political matters as they feel that all leaders in their political parties are corrupt and cannot be trusted to support the welfare of their people. The election of leaders symbolizes no importance to Zapatistas and the rebellious benevolent group neither supports the self-sufficient heads nor the common leaders (Botz 2014). However, EZLN organizes lobbies around the country through preaching against corrupt leadership and against

Short Stories Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Short Stories Summary - Essay Example Although, when he heard about his brother that he was jailed, this made him fear that some of his students may end up like his brother who indulged in drug abuse to forget about his problems. The narrator does not communicate with his brother for a long time until the death of her daughter. Sonny later replies his brother’s letter, and this makes them be in touch. The narrator recalls how they had differences with his brother when he decided to become a musician. The story shows how at first the two brothers had differences but later the story ends with them understanding and appreciating each other. The story tells us of the problems that the two brothers had and how they were able to tackle them. Thus, the story illustrates how there was anguish and recovery in the Harlem ghetto. It is evident that the narrator was able to handle his problem because of the teaching job that he had. From the story, we see him to be concerned about his students hoping that they would not be th e same as his brother. He also cares for his brother as he was the oldest. This is contrast to his brother who indulged into taking drugs to tackle his problems, which leads him to jail. As Sonny tries to deal with his problems, he tries to find his identity and feel accepted in the society. The narrator does not comprehend why his brother prefers to play piano. In the story, piano represents his problems, and in the end the figure of Sonny playing the piano, indicates how he struggles to deal with his problems. Summary of Paul’s case Acceptance and freedom of expression is two virtues that should be practiced to avoid emotional confinement (Brown 67). According to Willa Cather, in the story Paul’s case he tells of how Paul tries to fight against the social standards in the area where he lives in because he had no freedom to express what he felt. The story tells of a youth who is emotionally confined and how he tries to confront his problems. In school where Paul is, h e is called and faces the school faculty for his misbehavior. Paul is a student who does not follow teacher’s instructions and is less concerned with his studies. He ends up being a rude and comical student. He lived with his father in a quiet place but he wanted to go to New York where he could live the life that he was expecting. Although, he is seen to be careless and does not seem to care about anything, he loves music, theater, and arts. In contrast, Paul’s father wants him to work hard in school and venture into the business world. His father believes that it is only money that matters in people’s lives. This creates a big difference between them and has great influence on Paul’s character. For example, when his father stops him from going to watch movies in the theater drives him to steal money where he is working. He also ran from home and went to New York because he was not given the freedom to enjoy his life. Even though he enjoyed his life shor tly, his decision to leave home made him lose his life. Summary of Revelation In the story of Revelation by Flannery O’Connor’s, the main character feels that everyone is equal before God, regardless of their race and social status. The story starts when Mrs. Turpin goes to see a doctor with her spouse. As she gets in the hospital, she attracts people’

Wall-Mart Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wall-Mart - Case Study Example Wal-Mart, Target and Kmart are the top retailers in the present American market. Each of them is having more than 1000 stores. Wal-Mart is the king of the ring. It's the number one retailer in United States of America. Target is slowly moving closer to Wal-Mart and has become a tough competitor to Wal-Mart. Kmart has a long history; recently it is trying to emerge from bankruptcy reorganization. Kmart is slowly losing its customers to Wal-Mart. Their strategies include low price and highly qualified customer care service. This factor played an important role in the long-term development of the Hotel. The cheaper prices with high quality service and further free goodies attracted many. Another factor is the customer service. Customer plays an important role in the development of the company because it is the customer who uses the product that was developed by the companies was good at it. Before being bankrupted Kmart was the second best retailer after Wal-Mart. Both companies used different strategies to outsmart each other. They tried different strategies to woo the customers. After coming out from bankruptcy Kmart found that it has lost most of the customers to Wal-Mart and other retailers like Target. Its total net profit also declined considerably. Target took this opportunity to its full advantage and started aggressive campaigning. Though the think tank of Target knew that most of Kmart's customers would go to Wal-Mart rather than coming to Target's stores, they started slashing the prices of the products and announced heavy discounts on them. They used innovative ideas to woo the customers. To maintain its top position Wal-Mart used to slash the rates so that when customers come to purchase the items would buy other products also. These items were termed as loss leaders. Most of the middle class families are Wal-Mart's customers. Target aimed at upper middle class. Because of this stiff competition between Wal-Mart, Kmart, Target, Costco, etc., customer has wide range of choices to choose. Customer can buy products at discount rates. The companies are employing every possible method to woo the customers to their stores. Due to the bankruptcy Kmart lost its most of the investors to other retailing companies. The company that largely profited by this was Wal-Mart that was so much preoccupied of defeating Kmart. Most of the investors purchase bonds. A bond is nothing but a promissory note that the company would repay the sum over a certain period at a certain interest rate. Bonds are also called as debentures. If the company is in trouble and has to be dissolved, bondholders must be paid in full before paying the stockholders.Experts advise the investors to buy both Wal-Mart and Target stock. Both the companies had seen upswing of their net profit in the recent past. In the present market everything sells by brand names, the marketers are expected to put up good brand name products for sale. The purchaser desires to have or own a good brand name product and material with good quality at reasonable and cheaper rate. If the marketers were able to meet this demand of people of the society, definitely there would be a souring business for their product. Wal-Mart from its good service,

Nursing Should Not Unionize Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nursing Should Not Unionize - Essay Example It seems that there are various strong arguments against the unionization of nurses. The first argument, in the opinion of Anne Shields and Kathleen Rice, is that unionization of nurses goes in stark contradiction with the Florence Nightingale Pledge to â€Å"devote myself to the welfare of those committed to my care† (Shields & Rice, 2000). It is very evident that a nurse needs to be able to think, speak, and act independently in order to serve this purpose. However, unions often come between patient and nurse. This takes away the professional freedom and status of nurses. To illustrate, it is very common for unions to adopt strike and walkout as the strategies to achieve their targets. In such cases, all the nurses in the union will be forced to do so because of their affiliations. However, unlike other professions, all healing professions are first and foremost servants of the patient. Unionization often comes with common issues like collective bargaining, political action, and litigation. When such economic considerations are given importance, the quality of patient care goes down. Another adverse impact of unions will be on the effectiveness of supervision. Admittedly, the reality of nursing is that the ones who are highly dedicated and perform exceptionally are appreciated and better compensated by the nursing supervisors. However, the presence of a contractual agreement will make it impossible for the supervisors even to think about giving different compensation to different people violating the agreements. Things turn even worse when it is about incompetence. To illustrate, it is possible for a supervisor or management to remove such nurses who are ‘good enough’ or who are incompetent regardless of their seniority. However, such actions invite the wrath of unions. Thus, managers lose the power to argue for the welfare of the patient. Thus, AS Sbinga (2008) points out, instead of providing the best possible care to the patient, the

Conclusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Conclusion - Essay Example Migraine has various negative effects on the lives of the patients suffering from it. After depressive disorders, migraine is the main reason why women take days off work, in high-income countries. Not only does it affect working women, but the onset of migraine in adolescents is also very common (Iseri & CabioÄŸlu, 2012). Migraine patients often feel that the headaches control their lives. Research has proven that patients think that migraine affects their quality of life and at times makes it impossible for them to live their life freely. However, it is one of those disorders, the effects of which, extend to the entire family, friends and other relationships (Rutberg & Ã" ¦hrling, 2009). Even though there have been various interventions and research studies regarding migraines, it has been very difficult for the nurses to help migraine patients deal with the symptoms. Both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments have been used to treat migraines in women. Acupuncture is a non-pharmacological treatment that has been found to be very effective when treating migraine headaches. Numerous research studies have been conducted over time to test the effectiveness of acupuncture for curing migraine (Iseri & CabioÄŸlu, 2012). The objective of this paper is to review and analyze the effectiveness of acupuncture against migraine in females. The paper investigates how acupuncture is more effective, and determine the veracity of it exhibiting fewer side effects, than analgesics for alleviation of migraine, in females between 25 to 55 years old, during the first few hours of administration. Therefore, the clinical question of interest is: from among female patients be tween the ages of 25 through 55 that had been diagnosed with migraine, is acupuncture more effective as it allegedly exhibit lesser side effects than analgesics, for alleviating the symptoms? Acupuncture is

Paolo Freire's as a Great Educator Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Paolo Freire's as a Great Educator - Essay Example Paolo Freire was born in the Northeastern port of Recife, September 19, 1921. His parents were not rich and their family can be related more to a middle-class family. It should be mentioned that the life of middle class was greatly influenced by historical events that took place in Brazil that time. The Great Depression has made a great impact on their way of living in Brazil. Family’s financial status was also shaken after death of Paolo’s father. Paolo was prevented from his proper education at school and when family has sustained after the crisis, he managed to finish his school education and entered the University of Pernambuco to study law and philosophy. In 1944 Freire got married. He married an elementary school teacher Elza Maia Costa Oliveira and they gave birth to five children. Parenthood of Freire contributed much to his further development: â€Å"As a parent, Paulo’s interests in theories of education began to grow, leading him to do more extensive reading in education, philosophy, and the sociology of education than in law. In fact after passing the bar he quickly abandoned law as a means of earning a living in order to go work as a welfare official...† (Faundez, p. 22). ... There was a great percent of illiterate people at that time and it reached 75%. Freire began his career in a challenging cultural environment and his role as a great educator and a philosopher cannot be denied. Freire and his Ideas Poor people of Recife were Freire’s audience. He worked in the slums of Recife. He thought that authoritarian relationship between teacher and pupil was inefficient. Freire underlined that the process making an individual literate was the first step on the way of dealing with poverty. Freire tried to improve his experience while working as a teacher of poor people. He expanded his work and the results were successful: "The results of this experiment were impressive. Three hundred workers learned to read and write in forty-five days† (Elias, p. 4). An urban teacher has turned into a national expert in the issue of adult literacy. In spite of the phenomenal success of his programs there were some challenges. He was a great educator and he made p oor people believe in themselves and after that he provided them with information and knowledge. He inspired those people who seemed to be never restored to reinstate their minds and self-esteem again. He tried to prove that the first step in dealing with poverty was the economic justice, reform and opposition to repression. It is known that â€Å"Freirean-based literacy programs involve an examination of society’s hidden economies of power and privilege and how these help to inform students’ subjectivities" (McLaren & Leonard, p. 53). The underclass has been often challenged in terms of political and economic oppression. Freire tried to expand his ideas across the nation. He thought about a nation-wide implementation of educational programs. â€Å"This national

Introduction to Islam- Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Introduction to Islam- - Essay Example Seen in this context, Islam is a world religion that not only cherishes the man's relationship with God, but also encourages a self imposed discipline and a consideration for the rights and privileges of others. After the atrocities of September 11, many of us who are Muslim intellectuals living and working in North America made a discovery that deepened the horrors of that terrible day. We learned, to our intense dismay, that some of the Muslim organizations around us were getting their notions about Islam from Middle Eastern or South Asian preachers who preached a deeply illiberal "us against them" worldview and reviled the proposition that Muslims should learn the basic civic virtues and responsibilities of life in a free,. democratic, and a pluralist society (Sachedina 307). Never before the Islam was in a danger of being so grossly misinterpreted, by the Muslims and non Muslims throughout the Western world. The post 9/11 situation left the liberal Muslims in the developed world with a painful dilemma. Not only they found themselves to be the victims of the acts of hatred perpetrated by a small but intimidating section of the local population, but they also realized that the hardliners within their own community and throughout the world looked at them with suspicion and disgust. It left them with a predicament that urgently called for an intense catechism about their allegiance to their faith, their rights and duties as a citizen and their responsibilities as the devout Muslims in the countries adopted by them as their homeland.While projecting themselves as the authentic and legitimate champions of Islam," these preachers of intolerance continue to promote seclusion and mistrust (Sachedina 307)". The fundamentalist elements within the Muslim community are trying hard to project a picture of Islam that is incompatible with the contemporary ethos of democracy, tolerance and peaceful coexistence. They are bent upon unleashing a war of civilizations. Such an unhealthy trend gives way to many pertinent questions. Is Islam incompatible with the contemporary Western mores and values Do Muslims living in the Western world will have to make a choice between their faith or "basic civic virtues and responsibilities (Sachedina 307)" Has Islam got no message or relevance for the modern world and is anachronistic in a modern context Infact, any person, be it a Muslim or a non Muslim, who has a basic insight into and an understanding of the tenets of Islam is often surprised to find that Islam propagates a holistic attitude towards life that propagates and asserts the rights and duties of all the sections of the society, be it the women, the children, the aged, the physically challenged, the non Muslims, the capitalists, the laborers and the pe asants, the colored races, the intelligentsia and almost everybody. The issues and causes supported by feminism, the anti globalization movement, the

Transformational Leadership Essay Example for Free

Transformational Leadership Essay In any endeavor, a leader is necessary for it to be successful. One would ask why? Is something doomed to failure if it’s instigated, implemented without a leader? Sun Tzu said: â€Å"The art of war is of vital importance to the State. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected (Giles).† I would like to make a comparison here. Any action is a war – a war between success and failure. Even the simplest task of reading is a war – understanding vs. misunderstanding or enjoyable vs. boring. Let me just add that Sun Tzu further stated that: â€Å"The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to be taken into account in one’s deliberations, when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field. These are: The Moral Law; Heaven; Earth; The Commander; Method and discipline. The Commander stands for the virtues of wisdom, sincerely, benevolence, courage and strictness.† (Giles). So how important Sun Tzu’s Commander is in the way of things? Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric, was reported to have issued a three-word dictum–â€Å"Don’t manage! Lead!† So when does one be classified as a manager? As a leader? What’s the difference? Whereas a manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals, leadership is somehow more complex. It is â€Å"the process wherein an individual member of a group or organization influences the interpretation of events, the choice of objectives, the maintenance of cooperative relationships, the development of skills and confidence by members, and the enlistment of support and cooperation from people outside the group or organization† (Yukl 2002, p. 5). Henceforth, leadership is influencing other people to realize or actualize the vision an organization must take in order to stay ahead and the leader is the one who is ahead of the pact. In the years of studying leadership, several leadership styles emerged. Literatures discussed and analyzed situational leadership, participative leadership, charismatic leadership, and transformational leadership among others. Transformational Leadership: Review of Related Literature Nigel Nicholson talked about the transformational leadership in one of his articles. In the beginning of one of his article, How to Motivate Your Problem People, he said that â€Å"[everyone] knows that good managers motivate with the power of their vision, the passion of their delivery, and the compelling logic of their reasoning† (2003, p. 57). However, he did say that this is a great image and that only remains as main fare of â€Å"idealistic leadership books† (Nicholson, p. 57). Tracey and Hinkin undertook a research on whether transformational leadership exists or it is just effective managerial practices (1998). To test their hypothesis, Tracey and Hinkin conducted the study by comparing the transformational leadership scales from Bass and Avolios Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire with four scales from Yukls Managerial Practices Survey (1998). The results provided mixed support for the distinctiveness of the MLQ. Does this mean then that there is no such thing as a transformational leader? I don’t think so. I believe that Gandhi was one, Mother Theresa was one, and even Hitler was one. So what is this transformational leadership theory? Furthermore, Sosik and Megerian found out that the transformational leadership behavior and managerial performance are correlated in several circumstances (1991).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Transformational leadership was first formulated by Burns from his descriptive research on political leaders (Yukl 2002, p. 324). It is defined in terms of the transformational leader’s effect on followers: â€Å"they feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect toward the leader, and they are motivated to do more than they originally expected to do† (Yukl 2002, p. 325). The transformational leadership theory assumes that people will follow a person who inspires them. It also assumes that a person with vision and passion can achieve great things; and that the way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy. Given that a transformational leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the product of the transformation. But then as Nicholson implied, one of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. While it is true that great things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up. Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers. Chen studied the impact of gender on transformational leadership (2001). His research study supported his hypothesis that gender truly affects transformational leadership due to the differing qualities possessed by each gender (Chen 2001). Because â€Å"women leaders possess qualities more in line with transformational leadership and are thus more transformational than their male counterparts† (Chen 2001). A similar study was made by Schyns and Sanders. The study was focused on the gender differences in the relationship between transformational leadership and leaders occupational self-efficacy, and aimed to explain how female and male leaders develop their self-efficacy (Schyns Sanders 2005). Unlike the Chen study, Schyns and Sanders’ study â€Å"found no significant relationship between self-rated transformational leadership and occupational self-efficacy for women, although [they] did find a positive relationship for men. No interaction effect with respect to leaders occupational self-efficacy could be found between leaders gender and follower-rated transformational leadership† (2005). The effectiveness of the transformational leadership had been studied not only in the business sector, but also in the arts. Boerner and von Streit investigated the degree to which the conductors transformational leadership style and a cooperative climate in the orchestra favorably affect the orchestras artistic quality by surveying several musicians from 22 professional German symphony orchestras (2005). Specifically, the authors studied the assertion that the conductors transformational leadership style promotes the orchestras artistic quality only if there is a cooperative climate in the orchestra (Boerner von Streit 2005). Whereas Krishnan studied the effects of leader-member exchange, transformational leadership, and perceived value system congruence between leader and follower on followers six upward influence strategies assertiveness, bargaining, coalition, friendliness, higher authority, and reasoning by using a sample of 281 managers working in various organizations in India (2004). Majority of the researches done on transformational leadership focused on the effectiveness of transformational leadership, but Felfe ad Schyns pointed out that â€Å"a little is known about similarity in the leadership behavior of leader and supervisor, and how this affects the outcomes of leadership† (2004), and both collaborated to correct this oversight. In their study, 213 supervisors from two public administration offices were asked to rate their own leadership behavior as well as their leaders behavior. Felfe and Schyns then examined the relationship between own self-rated transformational leadership and perceived transformational leadership of the direct superior, and analyzed the relationship between perceived similarity between subordinate and supervisor in transformational leadership and leadership specific outcomes (extra effort, efficiency, and satisfaction with the leader), as well as organizational outcomes (commitment, overall satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, achievement orientation, stress, and irritability) (2004). The researches on transformational leadership were conducted in several ways: review of existing literatures, interviews, and surveys. Sosik, however, conducted a laboratory experiment to evaluate the effects of high and low level of transformational leadership style and anonymity (1997). He included 36 undergraduate student work groups, and used a Group Decision Support System to perform an idea generation task (Sosik 1997). Sosik found out â€Å"that groups working under high transformational leadership generated more original solutions, supportive remarks, solution clarifications and questions about solutions and reported higher levels of perceived performance, extra effort and satisfaction with the leader than groups working under low transformational leadership† (1997). Undoubtedly, the effectiveness of a transformational leader doesn’t depend solely on that leader: no matter how good a leader is that leader’s success will always depend, in part, on the followers. Walumbwa, Lawler, Avolio, Wang and Shi studied how a transformational leader’s effectiveness is affected by followers’ work-related attitude (2005). What is interesting with this study is Walumbwa, Lawler, Avolio, Wang and Shi collected their data from three countries: China, India and United States. But, then, what makes up a transformational leadership exactly? Hoffman and Frost examine the impact of emotional, social, and cognitive intelligences on the dimensions of transformational leadership using both paper-and-pencil measures and assessment center dimensions (2006). The study found out that there are significant relationships between cognitive intelligence components and intellectual stimulation, social intelligence components and charisma, and emotional intelligence components and individualized consideration (Hoffman Frost 2006). Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving entire wars. References Chen, C. (2001). Androgyny and transformational leadership: Effects of gender and sex-role identity in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, R.O.C. University of Southern California. Felfe, J. Schyns, B. (2004). Is Similarity in Leadership Related to Organizational Outcomes? The Case of Transformational Leadership. Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 10 (4), 92-103. Giles, L. (translator). Sun Tzu The Art of War. Hoffman, B. Frost, B. (2006). Multiple intelligences of transformational leaders: an empirical examination. International Journal of Manpower, 27 (1), 37. Krishnan, V. (2004). Impact of transformational leadership on followers influence strategies. Leadership Organizational development Journal, 25 (1/2), 58. Nicholson, N. (2003). How to Motivate Your Problem People. Harvard Business Review, January 2003, 57-65. Boerner, S. von Streit, C. (2005). Transformational Leadership and Group Climate-Empirical Results from Symphony Orchestras. Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 12 (2), 31-41. Schyns, B. Sanders, K. (2005). Exploring gender differences in leaders occupational self-efficacy. Women in Management Review, 20 (7/8), 513-523. Sosik, J. (1997). Effect of transformational leadership and anonymity on idea generation in computer-mediated groups. Group Organization Management, 22 (4), 460-487. Sosik, J. Megerian, L. (1991). Understanding leader emotional intelligence and performance: The role of self-other agreement on transformational leadership perceptions. T Group Organization Management, 24 (3), 367-390. Tracey, J. Hinkin, T. (1998). Transformational leadership or effective managerial practices? Group Organization Management, 23 (2), 220-236. Walumbwa, F., Lawler, J., Avolio, B., Wang, P. Shi, K. (2005). Transformational Leadership and Work-Related Attitudes: The Moderating Effects of Collective and Self-Efficacy Across Cultures. Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 11 (3), 2-16. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in Organizations (5th ed). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Feedback Loops Essay Example for Free

Feedback Loops Essay DMSS processing will produce a variety of evaluation-specific outputs. A main document will be synthesized with the forecasts and reports regarding the DMSS effectiveness. The following will be enumerated in this document. (i) Organization performance, as well as, maturity assessments of the decision maker will be decomposed by the outcome projections. (ii) Phase and step ratings will be the separated form of the process projections, as well as, productivity appraisals and personal efficiency. (iii) The usage of the evaluated DMSS will determine the overall decision value. (iv) Further processing will be done by the advice and recommendation of the logic leading. The detailed documentation will be provided by such an enumeration, by which, the evaluation will be justified properly. The user will be available with several output options. The desired section of the main output will be displayed by the users on the monitor, and display will be able to print by the users. Alternatively, the entire document could be saved by the user into a file, and a hard copy could be printed for the display of the results. Point-and-click operations will allow the selection of all these options, which will allow the transparency of the processing to the user. Database entries can be updated or revised, specific knowledge can be evaluated, and evaluation model can be operational by the use of feedback from the actions of the evaluator, as signified by the input loop. The original analyses and evaluations can be modified, extended, and guided by the use of output feedback, as shown by the bottom loop. What-if-type sensitivity analyses have been included in the important further evaluations. In these analyses, specified changes in the outcome or process measures and their reactions on the DMSS effectiveness can be determined by the evaluator. (Dean 2006) Reliability of CBTIs (Customized Business Technical Information) Many computer-based systems for test interpretation also include options for computerized test administration and scoring. In most (but not all) cases, CBTIs have been constructed for instruments originally developed as non-computerized measures, raising issues regarding the equivalence of computerized and non-computerized administration formats. Concluded that by and large, computer-administered tests are essentially equivalent to booklet-administered tests. However, findings reported in that article and elsewhere suggest that conclusions regarding equivalence are more ambiguous than this. Scholar argued that equivalence between testing formats should be evaluated along both psychometric dimensions and experiential ones (eg, perceptual and attitudinal processes). They concluded that most studies have not addressed all the criteria for equivalence and have usually ignored possible differences in variances and criterion validity between computerized and traditional procedures. Although the strongest evidence for psychometric equivalence has been obtained for computerized adaptations of paper-and-pencil measures of personality, even here the data are mixed. For example, Honaker and Fowler cited four studies between 1974 and 1987 comparing computerized and booklet MMPI administration formats in which significant mean score differences were found on one or more scales. They noted that the status of the MMPI equivalency research is somewhat discouraging because the number of studies on the MMPI far exceeds that done for any other assessment instrument. A significant potential advantage of automated administration of psychological tests lies in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) in which only a subset of the complete item pool is presented, based on known item-response properties and idiographic response patterns of the respondent. Items lying outside the floor and ceiling of the individuals response pattern (i. e. , having either very high or very low probabilities of being answered in a particular direction) are omitted, thus providing greater efficiency of testing. Moreover, because CAT tailors the test to each individual, and each person responds to different subsets of items, anyone can be measured with the same degree of precision (i. e. , the same standard error), facilitating both accuracy and potential validity in predicting non-test criteria.

A Life Course Approach To Health Psychology Essay

A Life Course Approach To Health Psychology Essay In the early years, illnesses were studied only in terms of single causes; one agent led to one particular disease. However, we now know that the health of individuals and societies are affected by a combination of factors such as hereditary factors, living conditions, socioeconomic status and social support networks. A life course approach to health focuses on all ages and stages of life and takes into account a wide range of processes that interact and influence peoples health from birth to old age ( Kuh et al, 2003) and also has implications on the way health care needs of people are considered. Based on the understanding that ones past and present life experiences are shaped by the wider socio-cultural context, we can study the current pattern of health and disease of an individual by looking into and examining their past life events for clues into present health related behaviour (WHO, 2000) such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diets and similar behaviours t hat have adverse effects on ones health and overall well being. Although, in the past, the Biomedical model of health which emphasizes on the biological determinants or external pathogens has proven to be effective in the control of massive infectious diseases ( Havelka et al, 2009), there is a crucial need to understand health and diseases from various other perspectives that take into account major influential factors such as biological, behavioural and psychosocial processes that run throughout the life of an individual and contribute towards both acquisition and attrition of physiological and psychological functioning. Such an approach aids in understanding the development and course taken by various diseases, leading to the formulation of preventive measures and treatment plans. A life course approach to health emphasizes on events from all stages of life, starting from the intrauterine environment and throughout adult life, subsequently studying how such events influence the risk for chronic illnesses and health outcomes later in life, whic h is why the narrow biomedical model has been broadened into an integrated model that looks at not only the biological determinants of health but also the psychosocial and behavioural aspects. On a simpler note, life course approach aims to understand how biological, psychosocial and behavioural risk factors during the fetal period, infancy, childhood and early adulthood accumulate and increase the risk for a number of diseases. Timing of physical growth and psychological transitions are known to be influential in the manifestation of various adult chronic diseases and therefore strongly affects an individuals capacity to be healthy (Osler, 2006). While ones genetic makeup or external pathogens (biological factors) may determine the onset of an illness up to certain degree, it can be debated that this is intensified by various personal behaviours and societal influences. A classic example of a life course approach to health would be the field of gerontology which studies how people age by examining an array of biological, psychological, social and lifestyle factors. Furthermore, if we were to consider cigarette smoking, a detrimental health related behaviour and a frequent ly used example in health related research, we can say that although an individuals family history of smoking( genetic influence) will definitely increase the risk of engaging in such behaviour, other factors such as exposure to smokers( peer/societal factor) or the need to live up to the expectations of others(psychosocial factor) will intensify the risk of smoking behaviour which, in turn, increases the risk for various health complications related to cigarette smoking, such as lung cancer, later in life. The importance of a life course approach lies in its implications for the way an individuals health is assessed, formulation of treatment plans based on past and ongoing events and training of health care professionals to equip them with a better understanding of peoples health and its underlying determinants ( WHO,2006). This paper focuses on the life course perspective on health, which is gradually becoming an efficient framework to study health and development of diseases, and also looks into the biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes that influence health throughout the lifespan. TIME, CRITICAL PERIOD AND ACCUMULATION OF RISKS The functional capacity of our physiological systems that increases during the early years of life reaches its peak in adulthood and begins to decline thereafter; external factors determine the intensity and speed of both the increase and decline. Therefore the lifespan perspective is defined by major concepts such as health trajectories, accumulation of risk factors, chains of risk, timing of exposure ( critical and sensitive periods), factors that mediate and modify the exposure-disease association and various adaptive strategies (Wethington, 2005). The life course perspective is a much broader approach than the Barker hypothesis or the Fetal origins hypothesis which focuses entirely on the relationships between early fetal environment and development of diseases later during adulthood and old age. It takes into account the contributions of both early biological programming (Barker, 1992) and later adult lifestyle factors which lead to the formation of biological, psychological and social chains of risks (Power et al, 1999). A number of researches (Smith, 2000; Lumey, 1998) and birth cohort studies reveal the existence of critical periods, not just during the intrauterine phase but also later in life, characterized by exogenous stimuli that have lasting effects on the structural and functional development of bodily systems leading to lifelong health implications. For example, fetal alcohol exposure during the first trimester is often associated with craniofacial abnormalities in conjunction with improper mental development (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome) as well as low birth weight (Coles, 1994). Similarly, there are various sensitive periods, mainly during childhood and adolescence, when the timing of exposure plays a crucial role in determining the development of lifelong adaptive strategies, social skills and health behaviours that have direct implications on development of illnesses later in life. For instance, the period between birth to 4 years is very crucial for sensory refinement in children, whereby f ailure to attend to the differences in sensory stimuli can lead to a diminished ability to make sense of the broader social environment leading to deprivation of social interaction and formation of social relationships (characterized by accumulation of stress and anxiety) which will eventually lead to adverse effects on the health of individuals later in life. Accumulation of risk factors over time also determines the likelihood of a disease occurring, for instance people who belonged to a poor socioeconomic environment as a child are more likely to have had poor educational attainment, exposure to poor eating habits and nutrition, air pollution, passive smoking, detrimental lifestyle choices, infections due to childhood neglect and inadequate social support, all of which carries onto a similar pattern in adulthood and increases the risk of adult health complications such as poor immune system, coronary heart diseases, high blood pressure and so on (Kuh Ben-Schlomo, 2002). In addition, the life course approach aims to understand whether such early bio psychosocial factors lead to just additional risk or interact with later adulthood events to intensify long term health conditions. Hence, the life course perspective combines the Early programming model and cumulative pathway model; the former is concerned with Biopsychosocial events in early life, starting from the fetal period until childhood, that have life-long influences while the latter focuses on lifelong accumulation of stress through various social and behavioural expectations that ultimately affects an individuals overall adaptive system. So, this approach focuses on the determinants of health from early developmental phase and also over the course of lifespan where time takes the centre stage, focusing on different exposure-timing interactions resulting in different health outcomes. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH Development of human beings is characterized by a number of biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes, each with different levels of importance at different developmental stages, and which involves growth, maintenance and loss of physiological and psychological functioning. Human development is, therefore, shaped by biological, social and behavioural factors working together (Myers et al). It is quite interesting to note that development is multidimensional in nature, involving the body, mind and emotions that interact and bring about significant changes at different stages in the lifespan and so it can be argued that the events that occur during such interactions or the individual lifestyle choices one makes will lead to either accumulation of risk or protective factors which will subsequently determine the susceptibility of individuals to adult diseases or chronic illnesses. So, the life course approach to health focuses on understanding the individual nature as well as th e cumulative impact of such bio-psychosocial and behavioural factors that co-constructs development and also health in the long run. A variety of behavioural factors or habits can have adverse effects on ones health. Some of the most commonly known factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, dietary pattern, level of physical activity, sexual behaviour and substance abuse. While excessive consumption of alcohol is associated with liver cirrhosis, untimely death and hazards to health from alcohol related violence, smoking is one of the leading causes of coronary heart diseases, asthma, lung cancer and a reduced life expectancy by seven to eight years (NWPHO data, 2005). In addition, poor dietary pattern/habit established during early childhood can increase the risk for obesity or malnutrition, leading to further health complications later in life such as weak immune system and eventually a decrease in life expectancy. Substance abuse and sexual behaviour (unprotected sex), like any other lifestyle habit, has devastating effects on health and general wellbeing, and in almost all cases they impact family and social relationships through events such as teenage pregnancy, domestic violence, unrest in the household, etc. Socioeconomic condition of people shape their risk for diseases later in life since both harmful exposures and opportunities are patterned by ones social environment, not to mention the life choices we make that are influenced by our social experiences. People interact with their social environment on a daily basis and such interactions affect their health either directly through psychobiological processes (experience of stress and anxiety) or indirectly leading to the development or modification of health related behaviours formerly discussed. The psychosocial factors that are known to impact ones health status include the social support network, work environment (ideal vs. stressful), work-home balance, sense of security, autonomy and so on. Stress and anxiety brought upon by such processes can lead to various psychological conflicts such as loss of self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, which will in turn affect the physiological functioning of the body. This brings us to the und erstanding that psychosocial processes or environment may have a role to play in disease aetiology (Cassel, 1974). In addition, it can also be argued that positive social support network facilitates behaviours that are considered healthy by the promotion of healthy eating, abstinence from substances and better adherence to treatments (Uchino, 2006). In his paper, Policy, Biology, and health, Bortz emphasizes that biological factors occur in various combinations to determine the functional well being of individuals. Although the human genome is often regarded as the ultimate determinant of human health, there are other equally important factors that influence health and well being, such as threats presented by the external environment (agents) and deterioration of internal bodily functioning. The life course approach to health is characterized by a temporal ordering of formerly mentioned biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes and is built on the view that these factors interact and have a cumulative influence on the development and course of illnesses in adulthood (Hertzman et al, 2001). So, the genetic makeup of individuals interact with intrauterine insults and various socially patterned exposures during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood that determine the risk for a number of health conditions and also accounts for socioeconomic, gender and ethnic inequalities in health ( Kuh, Ben-Schlomo, Lynch, et al, 2003). This approach helps us address some of the most common and emerging health conditions at present such as obesity, asthma and diabetes. In a study by Lamont et al in 2000, a number of early and later life factors were ordered temporally and the inter relationships were examined leading to the discovery of several potential disease pathway. In a similar study by Eriksson et al in 2001, these disease pathways were found to be influenced by a number of confounding factors and mediators and therefore, depending on the type and time of exposure, the pathways can be predominant in one of the following areas: biological, social, socio-biological and bio-social (Krieger, 2001). Specifically, if we consider respiratory problems like chronic bronchitis, improper lung development during the intrauterine period, in collaboration with later extraneous agents, will form the biological pathway to a greater risk of respiratory system dysfunction as an adult. Whereas if the individuals socioeconomic condition has led to adverse exposures during childhood, followed by detrimental health behaviour such as smoking, then the pathway to r espiratory diseases would be predominantly social. Likewise, the socio-biological pathway is characterized by the exposure to harmful biological agents as a result of adverse socioeconomic conditions. Or it can be the other way around whereby frequent infections during childhood would come in the way of proper development, leading to a low socioeconomic position during adulthood. RESEARCH AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS We can say that the life course approach to health is based on the Biopsychosocial model that maintains that both macro level and micro level processes interact and produce multiple effects on health. But the question arises as to how biological factors (micro level) and psychosocial factors (macro level) interact if they are on different levels. In order to address this issue, researches in health psychology adopts the system theory, according to which all levels in any entity are linked to each other hierarchically and that change in any one level will effect change in all other levels. Based on this understanding, researchers often take an interdisciplinary and multivariate approach to study the interacting processes, both within an individual and at the macro level and maintains that the process of defining an illness should always be done in terms of the biological, psychological and social factors (Oken, 2000). Health psychologists also carry out various prospective studies to evaluate events or variables relating to a particular health condition, such as intervening the smoking habits of people in one society and not in another and looking into the differences in the rate or prevalence of respiratory conditions in both the groups. Prospective longitudinal study is perhaps one of the popular research designs that health psychology adopts in order to follow a group of people and assess them on a number of variables over a long period of time and provides a good measure of factors affecting health of an individual. While correlational research has often been criticized for its inability to determine the direction of causality, researchers often make use of the retrospective approach to rearrange and understand the past conditions and how they lead to the present situation. The life course approach to health has various implications for clinical diagnosis of illnesses, development of treatment plans and training of health care professionals. By examining the Biopsychosocial processes underlying the lifespan development of individuals, health professional can formulate treatment plans and therapies unique to each individual; some may be a predominantly biological approach such as invasive methods while others may take a more psychological stance like cognitive behavioural therapy or relaxation therapy. Therefore, we can understand the health status of people only by viewing them in the social and psychological contexts ( Belar, 1997). CONCLUSION Health psychology strives to understand health in all its dimensions, recognizing all internal and external exposures throughout the life of an individual, giving more importance to the events that occur during the fetal period, childhood and early adulthood and their subsequent impact on adult health and development of illnesses. By downplaying the earlier assumptions that only current exposures or factors influence the onset of a disease or that illness is caused entirely by biological agents, it takes a rather multidimensional and multidirectional approach, taking into consideration the biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes occurring throughout the lifespan, their interactions and the cumulative impact on ones health and disease occurrence. In short, it integrates the lifelong progression of individuals from the intrauterine environment to the larger social environment; a progression that encompasses a series of social and biological factors that work together to dete rmine the health status of individuals in the long run. Health psychology, therefore, tries to explore all the underlying causes of ill health and subsequently develop treatment procedures to overcome them. Word count: 2755